TASK 2 (10%): Article Review

THE EFFECTS OF CAPTIONING VIDEOS USED FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE LISTENING ACTIVITIES
by Paula Winke, Susan Gass and Tetyana Sydorenko from Michigan State University
Language Learning and Technology, February 2010, Volume 14, Number 1, pp. 65-86
http://llt.msu.edu/vol14num1/winkegasssydorenko.pdf


The research is a revised version of a paper presented at the AILA World Congress in 2008, which is conducted to mainly investigate the effects of using captions in video-based listening activities in learning foreign languages. As captioned videos for foreign language learning are becoming more common as they are more accessible, easy to produce and fit well into online course offerings, videos with caption are viewed as an important learning tool which helps learners to integrate written and aural information thus supporting language acquisition.


Summary of the article
a.The aim of the research
The aim of this research was to investigate L2 learners’ use of caption while watching videos in a foreign language in order to see the effects of captioning during these video-based learning activities. In relation to previous findings on the role of audiovisual materials in helping learners enhance their language skills, the researcher related the use of caption videos in the learning of foreign language with regards to the easy accessibility for language teachers of both authentic videos as well as the tools for caption (i.e. Adobe Premier). The researchers were specifically interested in investigating on (i) the differences in level of comprehension in video content and learning of vocabulary between captioned and non-captioned videos; (ii) the order of view (first or second; when the video is viewed twice) for effective captioning by all languages involved in the study; (iii) the benefits of captioning order of all target language as well as (iv) whether the element of proficiency differences do affect the benefits of captioning derived from captioning order.


b.The methodology
The methodology of the research used both quantitative and qualitative form of study, where vocabulary tests, prior knowledge tests, comprehension test and interview were used. The sample of research is required to watch videos prepared from three short English documentaries about animals; transcribed, translated and dubbed into the four target languages, in preparing 12 videos with captions added and 12 videos with no caption added. There were several procedures that participants need to follow: first by watching a series of three videos (according to one’s target language learned) with different order of viewing videos with caption (in exception for two extra groups for Spanish learners; one which saw the video twice without captions and the other which saw them twice with captions). After that, the participants were required to take comprehension test and two vocabulary tests, and prior knowledge test. After the videos and testing sessions, the subject was required to undergo oral interview on general questions on the usefulness of captions, their experience watching the videos and what they did when the captions were presented on the screen.


c.The subject/sample
To collect data in answering the research questions, the researchers chose to include several languages in the study (from both Latin and non-Latin script languages). A total number of 150 foreign language learners from a large Midwestern University in the United States of second- and fourth-year learners of Spanish (N=67) and Russian (N=41), as well as second- year learners of Arabic (N=29) and Chinese (N=13). Heritage learners (those whose L1 is the same as target language) are not included, and that all learners who participated in the study during their regular classes, except for some Spanish learners who participated the study outside of class who received extra credit for their participation. For the oral interview session, 26 learners from the sample voluntarily agreed to be interviewed (12 who saw the captioned videos first, 11 who saw them second, and 3 who saw them both times).


d.The findings of the research
The first finding of the research discovered overall effect of captioning: that captioned videos aid novel vocabulary recognition compared to non-captioned videos. Captioned videos were also found to aid overall comprehension of the videos, regardless of whether the vocabulary tests were presented in written or aural manner (different modalities appears to facilitate vocabulary recognition and overall comprehension). In this case of text and sound presentation, both increase learners’ depth of processing because learners used different modes differently and that these input modes reinforce one another (Bird & Williams, 2002).

The second finding was that the order of viewing of captioning has an effect on the subsequent recognition of vocabulary in the listening activity (aurally). In this research, when learners were asked to view a video two times (once with captioning and once without captioning), learners who are presented with captions in the first viewing are better able to aurally recognize novel vocabulary than learners who are presented with captions in the second viewing. The researcher suggested and supported by the interview from the participants that the role of attention in learning a second language is important; in which the captions served the function in drawing the learners’ attention to the language used in the video. The captions helped the learners to isolate what’s important and determine what to pay attention in the later viewing. In other words, captions helped learners to be actively involved or attending to L2 forms in order for learning to take place; when captioning occurs first, it may draw learners’ attention to something that they do not know, whereas the second listening allows for confirmation.

The third finding of the research was that there are differences in terms of orthography between participants’ native and target language. As findings showed that Spanish and Russian learners do better on tests when captioning was first compared to Arabic and Chinese do better when captioning second, it is suggested that learners of a language whose orthography is closer to that of the target language are better able to use the written modality as an initial source of information. As learners with great differences between native and target language orthographies, aural mode is preferable: there is a reliance on listening since written symbols are not well learned.

The final finding for the research was that the study did not find that proficiency differences affect any benefits from captions ordering. From this, it is suggested that captioning is included as a language learning tool to aid processing that may function similarly for all proficiency levels.

In relation to the oral interview session with 26 learners, (voluntarily; 12 who saw the captioned videos first, 11 who saw them second, and 3 who saw them both times), the responses showed that captions helped learners to see and be able to parse structural patterns or chunks in the video, which assists them in remembering and learning from the patterns presented. As captioning do facilitate learners in aural comprehension, the second additional findings showed that learners perceived captions as “crutch” or a sort of scaffold (support) or tool to aid L2 learning, in which learners do not have to focus on extracting meaning from the sounds they hear and that they can focus on the form and link that form to meaning.




Reaction
The title of the research has taken my interest to review for CALL task. I feel that the research was well-conducted, as it consists of the use of captions in videos in the learning of several foreign languages and the fact that the researchers consider the differences in language orthographies with the learning of target language. The fact that there are still many learners who feel alienated and demotivated in learning second and foreign language made me hold this strong belief that captions in videos can encourage and assist learners in the learning process and at the same time giving them the ‘excitement of viewing videos’ while learning and exposing to the target language culture in addition to how the target language is used by native speakers.

In relation to the Malaysian context, learning using the technology can only be observed in certain schools in the urban areas. The learning through videos is less used, yet to insert the use of captions in videos to learn second or foreign language. I personally feel that there is a great need for language teachers to brainstorm and conduct classroom activities which are more varied (include videos and audios) to grasp students’ attention and interest in learning language. The real situation of learning second language by students today is the inability to relate what they learn in written form to what they hear (aural mode). Listening activities are less conducted, and the struggle for learners to understand the information delivered in evident. The idea of using captions in videos can highly aid language learners in giving them instant confirmation of their understanding of what they heard thus improving listening comprehension, and at the same time being able to increase one’s processing depth.

Despite of lack of proficiency in second and foreign language among students (even among students of high schools and higher institutions), the use of captions in videos could be most beneficial as it helps language learners to connect auditory to visual input, thus leading to the increase of learners’ attention, reduce anxiety, increase level of motivation in learning language. The use of captions in videos should be added accordingly based on the proficiency level of students i.e. simplify captions for lower proficiency learners. I strongly feel that language teachers in Malaysia should adapt this form of teaching language not just to give more exposure to the learners on how the target language is used but also to strengthen and improve listening skills and strategies of language learning.

The act of combining both aural and visual for L2 learners in Malaysia could give great exposure on the language together with helping learners visualize what they hear. I remembered one of my lessons during my teaching practicum in which I taught on a poem “There’s Been a Death in the Opposite House” by Emily Dickinson. My students would rarely brought their textbook to my class, and I had to always xerox for them the handouts that I would use for everyday lessons. They were very weak in the language, and when I got the chance to show them a video on the poem with captions, they were more motivated in learning and get the general idea of what the poem is all about (associating captions with visual). There were words emphasized in the captions which made them more focused and understand better of the meaning of the poem. This differ to another short movie clip on “The Sound Machine” by Roald Dahl (without caption) which I showed to my students. They were generally interested in the clip, but they could not understand the message/conversations in the clip.

In a nutshell, I strongly believe that language teachers can make a big difference in learners’ learning by using captions in videos. It is suggested that extended research could be done on the learning of language (specifically in listening) in the Malaysian context and the impact of captioning in videos in Malaysian learners’ learning.

TASK 1: esl website evaluation

WEBSITE : Randall’s ESL Cyber Listening Lab

URL : http://www.esl-lab.com/

Q1: What does the application attempt to “teach”?

This website/application is designed for both learners and teachers in the course of teaching and learning English. The website focuses on or “teaches” a specific area of English skill which is listening skill. The website inserts a wide range of listening lessons as well as listening quizzes on various conversations/audio clips on topics ranging from family activities to world issues. The website also “teaches” or make the English learners learn how to listen to audio prepared, familiarize ESL learners to the language, improve their listening skills and expose them to various forms of conversation by native speakers of English, which later on improve their communication skills with others. The concerns are that the listening area is less focused especially in the teaching and learning of English in the Malaysian context; and that learners’ language progress begins to slow down as they reach intermediate level, resulting lack of vocabulary knowledge and exposure on how to use it. Thus, exercises on vocabulary from the website aid learners in understanding (and using) English better in future.

The materials used for teaching and learning English from this website is systematic: activities and quizzes are organized in a lesson plan format which guides teachers and learners to follow steps recommended to enhance their listening skills. Listening materials, exercises/practice and quizzes are designed according to learners’ proficiency level: easy, medium, difficult and very difficult. The easy level of the listening materials are not exactly meant for total beginners, thus most likely fit the criteria for students of secondary level in Malaysia context. The division of difficulty level on listening sources enable learners self-determine their proficiency level and keep track of own progress in the skill area, leading to developing a more sense of language autonomy within the learners. The diverse topics from informal to formal listening texts give the freedom for teachers and learners to choose from to fit the proficiency level.

In addition, the website is very user-friendly, and that all of the activities (i.e. quizzes, exercises, listening materials) designed are towards self-access learning. English learners are able to learn listening and do activities prepared on their own and at their own pace. However, it is extremely important that teachers assist student to achieve the lesson objectives. This can be done through explaining the steps used to maximize learners’ learning (i.e. reading/skimming the questions from exercises before listening to texts and downloading handouts for learners to jot down important points in lessons, instead of just merely listening and answering comprehension questions). Learners also can obtain immediate feedback and see their progress in the listening area from scores in the exercises and quizzes done. Learners are likely to feel more in control of own learning and develop more confidence in the language without having peers commenting and criticizing on their performance.

Q2: What sorts of things is the application users expected to do with regards learning the content?

Learning listening through Randall’s ESL Cyber Listening Lab takes easy steps as 123 as users of this website can freely assess and learn English without the need to register or pay any fees to learn in the course. This free website offers various listening activities, practices, quizzes and handouts to assists learners in listening area. With the design of self-study guide, topics and listening activities are suggested to ease learners who desires for maximum learning in listening. Learners could choose what topic they want to learn and determine their own proficiency level. Through self-learning and more autonomy in learning English, students get to keep track of their progress in the skill area. With the record of scores for quizzes and exercises, learners are able to self-reflect their own strengths and weaknesses (areas for improvement). Learners can also download handouts prepared for specific lessons to enhance one’s comprehension in learning.

In terms of completing tasks, the activities and lessons for learners to complete do not require any specific computer skill for students to acquire. Exercises used are mainly of multiple-choice questions, mixed-up sentences (drag and drop), text completion, and matching exercise. The learners can answer the practices by just clicking on the correct answer and typing in answers (1-word question) in the text completion exercise. In order for learners to access the listening files for the listening lesson, learners can follow the guide for downloading media players (i.e. flash video, windows media player and real player). Earphones or headphones are equipments that could assist and enable learners to concentrate better and improve their performance in listening lessons. The amazing, structured and detailed instructions in lessons would ensure a smooth flow in the process of learning the skill by the learners.

Q3: What sorts of computer skills is the application users expected to have in order to operate/access/use the application?

To operate/access/use the application, learners should have basic computer skills in general. The website comprises listening activities for users which are easy to access. Clear and simple step by step instructions are provided to assist users of the application in using the learning site. Users should both explore the website by using browsing and downloading skills. Learners, before selecting exercises or quizzes from the website, should explore the site first by browsing the elements and sections offered as all learning activities are mainly categorized based on learners’ proficiency level and topic of listening materials. In addition, learners should also know the skill of downloading listening materials designed for the site. Learners could download materials by selecting compatible media player with one’s computer (i.e. real player, windows media player, flash player) and follow the detailed instructions given. The user-friendly learning site not only answer possible problems that may occur if users face difficulty in downloading software for learning, it also inserts recommendation on reading materials and devices that could effectively aid users in the learning of listening skills. As the questions prepared can mostly be answered using the mouse, the basic of computer skills that users are expected to have and can do are selecting/clicking on the appropriate answer in multiple-choice questions (MCQ), ‘drag and drop’ in mixed-up sentence and matching exercise, as well as typing words in text completion exercise. Other than that, users should check whether they can use earphones/headphones in listening for better focus on exercises. Learning process becomes much easier with the listening scripts being given for users (in case they are not able to comprehend the conversation) and key vocabularies for learners to check on their understanding. All of these skills are vital to ensure smooth and ease flow in learning listening.

Q4: While you are “playing”/”accessing”/’assessing’ the application, does it remind you of anything you do in a classroom, or with a teacher, or with a fellow classmate, or in self-study?

I remembered back when I was around the age of 9 my parents bought me this really cool and interactive English CD courseware where there are language songs and Basic English exercises for me to do. I was the person (still am) who never gets bored of things which practically drove my siblings crazy since I played the courseware practically 24/7. It did make my parents very proud of my indulgence of the courseware and I soon stopped using the CD when the CD broke (probably because of the overuse of it?)L The lessons did somehow made me become a lot more interested in learning English.

This website did remind me of the first time I was introduced to interactive ESL websites. It was during Part4 in Dr. Gurnam’s Methodology in Listening and Speaking class. It also struck me that the importance of listening and speaking skills were both taken for granted by many Malaysian English teachers and exam-oriented learning is more focused on. I was so clueless at that time; I didn’t even know such type of lessons exist as I was so used to learning in the most traditional, teacher-oriented, ‘chalk-and-talk’ manner. So, what I did during my teaching practicum was that I inserted the fun element of skill in my students’ learning by teaching the skill i.e. using songs, videos, pronunciation and listening to conversations; and at times selecting topics that are close to their hearts. Even when students didn’t get to access computers individually for English lessons, or internet access could be used by computers in classrooms, I saved files for learners to read on to make them see the relevance of using English in the real world. Learning was a lot more lively, interactive, and increase attention span and motivation when it comes to using computers.

I feel that the best part about teaching (other than self-satisfaction, of course) is that we (teachers) learn something new from the students, and not just all the time the other way around. Self-studying through ESL websites really did keep me be more prepared to teach. Teaching during practicum made me self-reflect on lessons created by asking myself whether I can understand and am interested in learning what has been planned. I also learned that selecting materials for teaching is vital and basically determine how the process of teaching and learning goes on. Using ESL websites really did help me a lot, especially in the teaching of listening and grammar. With all the input that ESL websites are offering, learning English doesn’t seem that distant from my students, and that they were more engaged in learning English (p/s: my students were generally of low-proficiency level learners).

Q5: Can you pinpoint some theories of language learning and/or teaching underlying the application?

In a classroom setting, students tend to do more listening than speaking. Learning a language does not only mean the ability to speak in the language, but also to be able to understand the language in order to communicate effectively with other speakers. In the Total Physical Response theory by James Archer, the role of comprehension was given importance as learners were given great quantities of target language to listen to before they were encouraged to respond orally. In relation to the website, ample of examples on the English were offered for learners/users to expose to the language. Learners especially those who do not have English as the preferred or main medium of communication could highly benefit the various area of topic covered by the website. Learning listening skills too is supported by The Natural Approach in which Krashen recommended a significant “silent period” during which learners were allowed the security of listening without being forced to go through the anxiety of speaking before they were ready to do so. Another theory which received many academic reactions is the Input hypothesis in Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition. In his hypothesis, the importance of comprehensible input or in other words the aural reception is just a little beyond the learners’ present ability. Considering the role of listening in language learning, the conversion of input of input into intake is extremely important for learners to comprehend and respond using the language.

The learning of language specifically in listening is one of the ways in which fit the notion that Roger’s Approach in Education; one of the principles are that effectiveness in learning will only occur when people take their own initiative and fully involve themselves in the learning activities. Take note and compare between a learner who are more exposed to a second language (meaning to say, that one lives in the society where the language is used as the medium of communication) and one that does not (one that lives in a society where the language is rarely used). The insightful experiences of learning German by Francois Gouin (in comparison with his three-year old nephew learning French) in his ‘Gouin and The Series Method’ proved the importance of target language exposure on how learners construct the knowledge of the language and use it. Thus, the use of this website could highly benefit learners for better use of the knowledge of the language.

Q6: How well is the constructivist theory of learning applied to the chosen website(s)?

The constructivist theory proposed the knowledge will not exist outside the mind, and that knowledge is constructed through meaningful learning by those who take their own initiatives in learning. This state can be achieved via students being actively engaged and adapt oneself to the environment. The notion that the process of knowledge formation is a result of individual experiences requires learners of language to have a proactive view, by which learners need to participate actively in various tasks and activities in order to compliment their learning. For instance, in the context of teaching and learning listening skills, teacher’s discussion on their aural experience to clarify learners’ understanding or giving problem-solving activities could encourage learners to learn to enhance their listening skills and at the same time getting them engage in such activities. Each individual difference of experiences of active learning and in hands-on listening activities creates new or adapted form of knowledge that learners construct in their knowledge of language.

It is difficult for second language learners to learn the new language when their knowledge of their first language comes in the way. The fact that learners experience the native language effect or the learners’ assumption that the target language operated like the native language made some learners become afraid to take risks or making mistakes in using the target language. This leads to decrease in self-confidence and challenged language ego. This situation experienced by all learners (not just language learners) view learning as not just a process of receiving new information, but adding and amending the existing knowledge along the way (i.e. maintaining adaptation, assimilation, accommodation, classifications, etc.) as proposed in Piaget’s Cognitive Learning Theory in the previous paragraph. Here, a teacher acts as facilitator who assists learners in what they acquire from what they learn and monitoring their understanding and application of skills in the target language. In relation to the learning of listening skills using this website, the exposure on the use of language mainly test on learners’ understanding of conversation which is more of a first step for learners in exposing them to the relevance of using the target language in daily lives. This effort will later leads to other mastery on language area in evaluating whether learners are able to not just comprehend what they learn, but can also use the language through speaking, reading and writing.

Furthermore, Vygotsky’s notion of differences in individual experiences in learning language too requires the need for teachers to encourage, support and set goals for students in order to obtain successful outcomes in the target language. Vygotsky also shared his view that pupil’s early understanding of a subject matter comes from the support of educated adults, teachers or peers through interaction. The support (given according to the need and mastery of learners) enable learners to make further progress in the zone of proximal development. Learning with support and guidance is proven to be better than using their own ability alone, and in this way learners can achieve a higher level of potential development and that is beyond learners’ independent ability to achieve. In the context of learning listening, teachers control the ZPD level and acts as facilitator while letting learners ‘explore their world and discover knowledge’ through their own effort.

Q7: In 1980s and early 1990s, there was a major debate on ‘whether the computer was “master” of or “slave” to the learning process (Higgins and Johns, 1984). In relation to your evaluation – was the computer a replacement for teachers, or merely an obedient servant to students?

In my opinion, I strongly feel that computers should never be a replacement for teachers nor should it be merely an obedient to students. I have always believed that effective learning requires two-way interaction between the learner and the teacher, in which the students learn something new (whether they discover by themselves or teacher teaches new information) while the teacher facilitates learning. With computers starting to become a bigger part in the education system and learning, I feel that computers act as a ‘medium’ for teachers to teach new information, and not with the view that teachers simply just give exercises for students without teaching first what they are supposed to learn. Computers will never get to replace the role of the teachers in teaching and learning, but the computer could definitely complement the teaching and learning process; or in other words, aid in the teaching and learning process. The reason of saying as such is because there is an interaction between the relationship of teachers and students whom students need feedback and support to create effective learning. By using computers, learners could not get verbal feedback and fix their weaknesses in language learning. In addition, teachers could give a better lesson by knowing and analyzing students’ exact level in a certain skill area, while computers are not able to do so. Furthermore, the fact that teachers are human beings and have feelings and emotions to understand students’ learning or personal development put computers in the position as helpers or aid in teacher’s effort to teach. For instance, teachers use online ESL software or courseware that one makes (or obtained from the ministry) in the teaching and learning process.

In part of the students, computers are not merely an obedient servant to them but an obedient ‘medium’ of helping students enhance what they know in a specific skill area in the context of learning. I do support the idea of programs on self-study using computers, but self-study should not be a constant process without the assistance of someone more knowledgeable in the skill area. Computers are not an obedient servant for learners, but more of an obedient medium which aids and helps learners in learning language. This is mainly because work is easier for learners to do from the use a certain software/application as prepared by the software. The fact that computer is not a living creature which is less likely to understand students’ exact needs is shown when learners themselves choose the levels or materials that they think suit best with their cognitive and proficiency level of language. The use of computers in learning should be more of a supplementary or additional way for students to strengthen the knowledge that they have obtained and learn from the teacher. By using computers, students get to access new knowledge at their fingertips through the net, complete their work more efficiently (i.e. faster, tidier) as well as monitoring own learning and develop a sense of being in control of progress of students’ own learning. For instance, online applications often have exercises where learners obtain feedback of whether they got the correct answers or not, but not stating the exact reasons of one being correct or not, or stating specific areas that learners need to improve (like what teachers can do) J

Q8: Would you like to use the application yourself in your future work?

Yes. I would highly recommend the application in learning and improving listening skills for both teachers and students and use it in teaching listening skills in the future. It is a great choice for teachers as the website offers a wide range of topics and categorized based on topic and level of proficiency/difficulty. The type of listening texts also varies in terms of formality. The exposure on how native speakers use English too does benefit learners or users of the software. The systematic and structured manner made the application so easy to browse and explore, especially for teachers to use in teaching, and for students to do self-study, both at great ease. The language used is also easy to understand, and the listening materials are of interesting topics and it doesn’t sound too scripted.

Its easy access and download of listening texts is an extra to the accessibility in learning through the website. However, the page is a bit dull in terms of graphics of the website, and the concept of activities for the site is less varied basically ‘listen-and-answer-the-question’ oriented. It is a great website for enhancing listening skills, but learners have to search other websites to learn other language skills. I do prefer to use the materials from the site as the lessons are interesting and also enjoyable to listen, more focused for adult learners, and are categorized into a range of difficulty levels to fit target students’ proficiency level. It is easier to identify suitable and appropriate materials for users to do, either as class activity of self-study. With the teacher’s teaching of the importance of listening skill and assistance to improving the skill and language, the materials from the website would be utilized at maximum.

Suggestions and recommendations.

Overall, I really love to use the materials from this website. The fact that listening always go together with speaking made it difficult for learners to totally do self-study on their own as computers applications or courseware are not responsive of such learning, for instance, computers could not tell learners ways for them to improve the skill from speaking after learners do a speech. Learning listening and speaking requires the assistance from the teacher to provide feedback and assistance for the activities may be learned on the surface rather than going deeper into the art of listening and speaking. Learners of English would need to search for other websites to learn other language skills as the website only specializes on listening skills.

A website would be nothing without the ‘filling’, or in other words, the content. The website’s content and systematic structure, in my opinion is very good. After exploring the website for this website evaluation assignment, I would really love to use and learn the lessons in this website myself. On the other hand, i would like to suggest ways for improving the website. In my opinion, I really do believe that people judge a book by its cover. But sometimes people tend to care too much of the content, that they forget that what matters most is the content. Same goes with this learning website. The website could be more interesting if the creator of the website could play around with more graphics, background and colours to attract more users to learn through this website. The website could also vary the form of activities for the learning of listening skills. For instance, interactive word games like learning through songs, word puzzle, reading maps and directions and hangman could be introduced to the usual, existing listening texts, adding to basic computer exercises such as MCQ questions, matching, and others. Such games could initiate motivation within learners, especially among learners of younger age. In addition, the insertion of software in ESL websites such as online dictionary could highly benefit learners in learning listening as they may encounter difficulty in understanding difficult words. Overall, I would highly recommend the use of this website to teach and learn listening skills.

References:

Brown, H.D. (2000). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (2nd Edition). New York: Longman.

Mok Soon Seng (2008). Learner and Learning Environment. Malaysia: Penerbitan Multimedia Sdn. Bhd.